Constructivism is a category of learning theories in which emphasis is placed on the agency and prior knowledge of the learner, and often on the social and cultural determinants of the learning process. Educational psychologists distinguish individual (or psychological) constructivism, identified with Piaget's learning theory, from social constructivism. A dominant influence on the latter type is Lev Vygotsky's work on sociocultural learning, describing how interactions with adults, more capable peers, and cognitive tools are internalized to form mental constructs. Elaborating on Vygotsky's theory, Jerome Bruner and other educational psychologists developed the important concept of instructional scaffolding, in which the social or information environment offers supports for learning that are gradually withdrawn as they become internalized.
Vygotsky's version of constructivist theory has led to the view that behavior, skills, attitudes and beliefs are inherently situated, that is, bound to a specific sociocultural setting. According to this view, the learner is enculturated through social interactions within a community of practice. The social constructivist view of learning has spawned approaches to teaching and learning such as cognitive apprenticeship, in which the tacit components of a complex skill are made explicit through conversational interactions occurring between expert and novice in the setting in which the skill is embedded.
Tuesday, March 24, 2009
Learning and Cognition
Two fundamental assumptions that underlie formal education systems are that students (a) retain knowledge and skills they acquire in school, and (b) can apply them in situations outside the classroom. But are these assumptions accurate? Research has found that, even when students report not using the knowledge acquired in school, a considerable portion is retained for many years and long term retention is strongly dependent on the initial level of mastery.One study found that university students who took a child development course and attained high grades showed, when tested 10 years later, average retention scores of about 30%, whereas those who obtained moderate or lower grades showed average retention scores of about 20%.There is much less consensus on the crucial question of how much knowledge acquired in school transfers to tasks encountered outside formal educational settings, and how such transfer occurs. Some psychologists claim that research evidence for this type of far transfer is scarce, while others claim there is abundant evidence of far transfer in specific domains. Several perspectives have been established within which the theories of learning used in educational psychology are formed and contested. These include behaviorism, cognitivism, social cognitive theory, and constructivism. This section summarizes how educational psychology has researched and applied theories within each of these perspectives.
Behaviorist Approach
Applied behavior analysis, a set of techniques based on the behavioral principles of operant conditioning, is effective in a range of educational settings. For example, teachers can improve student behavior by systematically rewarding students who follow classroom rules with praise, stars, or tokens exchangeable for sundry items. Despite the demonstrated efficacy of awards in changing behavior, their use in education has been criticized by proponents of self-determination theory, who claim that praise and other rewards undermine intrinsic motivation. There is evidence that tangible rewards decrease intrinsic motivation in specific situations, such as when the student already has a high level of intrinsic motivation to perform the goal behavior. But the results showing detrimental effects are counterbalanced by evidence that, in other situations, such as when rewards are given for attaining a gradually increasing standard of performance, rewards enhance intrinsic motivation. Many effective therapies have been based on the principles of Applied Behavior Analysis, including Pivotal Response Therapy which is used to treat Autism Spectrum Disorders.
Cognitivism
Cognitivism has two major components, one methodological, the other theoretical. Methodologically, cognitivism adopts a positivist approach and the belief that psychology can be (in principle) fully explained by the use of experiment, measurement and the scientific method. This is also largely a reductionist goal, with the belief that individual components of mental function (the 'cognitive architecture') can be identified and meaningfully understood. The second is the belief that cognition consists of discrete, internal mental states. Cognitivism became the dominant force in psychology in the late-20th century, replacing behaviorism as the most popular paradigm for understanding mental function. Cognitive psychology is not a wholesale refutation of behaviorism, but rather an expansion that accepts that mental states exist. This was due to the increasing criticism towards the end of the 1950s of behaviorist models. One of the most notable criticisms was Chomsky's argument that language could not be acquired purely through conditioning, and must be at least partly explained by the existence of internal mental states.
The main issues that interest cognitive psychologists are the inner mechanisms of human thought and the processes of knowing. Cognitive psychologists have attempted to throw light on the alleged mental structures that stand in a causal relationship to our physical actions.
The main issues that interest cognitive psychologists are the inner mechanisms of human thought and the processes of knowing. Cognitive psychologists have attempted to throw light on the alleged mental structures that stand in a causal relationship to our physical actions.
Inclusive classrooms
Inclusive education has many benefits for students with special needs, students in regular education, teachers and support staff, and society. Children with special needs benefit because
affords a sense of belonging to the diverse human family
provides a diverse stimulating environment in which to grow and learn
evolves in feelings of being a member of a diverse community
enables development of friendships
provides opportunities to develop neighborhood friends
enhances self-respect
provides affirmations of individuality
provides peer models
provides opportunities to be educated with same-age peers
Students in general education benefit by provides opportunities to experience diversity of society on a small scale in a classroom
develops an appreciation that everyone has unique and beautiful characteristics and abilities
develops respect for others with diverse characteristics
develops sensitivity toward others' limitations
develops feelings of empowerment and the ability to make a difference
increases abilities to help and teach all classmates
develops empathetic skills
provides opportunities to vicariously put their feet in another child's shoes
enhances appreciation for the diversity of the human family
Teachers and support staff benefit because it helps teachers appreciate the diversity of the human family
helps teachers recognize that all students have strengths
creates an awareness of the importance of direct individualized instruction
increases ways of creatively addressing challenges
teaches collaborative problem solving skills
develops teamwork skills
acquires different ways of perceiving challenges as a result of being on a multi-disciplinary team
enhances accountability skills
combats monotony. Society benefits because promotes the civil rights of all individuals
supports the social value of equality
teaches socialization and collaborative skills
builds supportiveness and interdependence
maximizes social peace
provides children a miniature model of the democratic process
affords a sense of belonging to the diverse human family
provides a diverse stimulating environment in which to grow and learn
evolves in feelings of being a member of a diverse community
enables development of friendships
provides opportunities to develop neighborhood friends
enhances self-respect
provides affirmations of individuality
provides peer models
provides opportunities to be educated with same-age peers
Students in general education benefit by provides opportunities to experience diversity of society on a small scale in a classroom
develops an appreciation that everyone has unique and beautiful characteristics and abilities
develops respect for others with diverse characteristics
develops sensitivity toward others' limitations
develops feelings of empowerment and the ability to make a difference
increases abilities to help and teach all classmates
develops empathetic skills
provides opportunities to vicariously put their feet in another child's shoes
enhances appreciation for the diversity of the human family
Teachers and support staff benefit because it helps teachers appreciate the diversity of the human family
helps teachers recognize that all students have strengths
creates an awareness of the importance of direct individualized instruction
increases ways of creatively addressing challenges
teaches collaborative problem solving skills
develops teamwork skills
acquires different ways of perceiving challenges as a result of being on a multi-disciplinary team
enhances accountability skills
combats monotony. Society benefits because promotes the civil rights of all individuals
supports the social value of equality
teaches socialization and collaborative skills
builds supportiveness and interdependence
maximizes social peace
provides children a miniature model of the democratic process
All about Pull out programs
Definition: A pull-out program is one in which gifted children are taken out of their regular classroom for one or more hours a week and provided with enrichment activities and instruction.
Pull-out programs may begin as early as first grade, but more typically start in third grade. They are usually content specific; that is, they they generally provide enrichment in language arts (particularly reading) or in math.
There are also ESL pull out programs for students who struggle with English. Pull out programs have many benefits for children. For instance pull out programs allow students to explore more challenging and abstract concepts than would be taught in the regular classroom. Some weaknesses of pull out programs are that they cause classroom disruptions when the students move from class to class. These students also lose valuable instruction time in the regular classroom.
Pull-out programs may begin as early as first grade, but more typically start in third grade. They are usually content specific; that is, they they generally provide enrichment in language arts (particularly reading) or in math.
There are also ESL pull out programs for students who struggle with English. Pull out programs have many benefits for children. For instance pull out programs allow students to explore more challenging and abstract concepts than would be taught in the regular classroom. Some weaknesses of pull out programs are that they cause classroom disruptions when the students move from class to class. These students also lose valuable instruction time in the regular classroom.
Tuesday, March 10, 2009
All About Me
Hello all! This website is geared towards parents and teachers who are looking for supplemental information to teach lessons, create activities, and share assessments. You are more than welcome to supply your personal resources to the website for our readers to borrow, alter, and learn from! The whole point of this site is for teachers and parents to communicate and collaborate with one another to create meaningful and effictive lesson plans and assessments. So please feel free to post blogs, comments, and ideas on our page, our email me!
Nicky
Nicky
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)